POINTS OF LEXICAL CONTACT BETWEEN EPIGRAPHY

OF BUILDING CONTRACTS AND THE NEW TESTAMENT

The e[rg* Word-Group

Within its field of meaning, the e[rg* word-group is nuanced in several ways to express a construction metaphor.  Here we shall note ten cognates of this root (nine nominals, and a verb), observing their use in three epigraphy, and in Ephesians and 1 Corinthians 3.  Following this analysis, the data is synthesized to highlight the similarity of word usage in these documents.  Ultimately we will see that the commonality of e[rg* word-group usage in the epigraphy and the biblical texts necessitates the study of epigraphy and background for proper interpretation of the New Testament.

As one may assume, the building contracts of the ancient world frequently reference the contractor and laborers involved in the work.  Among the e[rg* cognate nouns used for these individuals, τῶι ἐργώνηι,[1] ἐργάταις,[2] ὁ ἐργώνης,[3] should be noted.  As well, we should consider the specificity of these engraved documents, as two nouns, tw`n e[rgwn,[4] and ta; e[rga[5] commonly refer to the individual steps in the work of construction as a whole.

In the Epigraphy, the noun τὸ e[rgon is used for the construction site in general.[6]  As well, this common noun can refer to a completed work of construction as a whole, for which various parties are responsible.[7] In the New Testament passages under consideration, e[rgon occurs in Eph 4.12, referencing the work of ministry, for which the pastor is to equip the saints.  In 1 Cor 3.13, to; e[rgon is the nominal for the work each person does in the building of the Church.  This idea is parallel with what we see in 1 Cor 3.13-15, where (used once in each verse) to; e[rgon is used for one’s work of ministry—which will be tested holistically that its nature might be revealed (i.e. of what sort it is). 

Paul uses the dative plural of to; e[rgon in Ephesians 2.10, as the object of the preposition ejpi;, stating the purpose of our creation in Christ Jesus: good works of building up the Church.[8]  Later in the same Epistle (5.11), Paul uses toi`" e[rgoi", modified by toi`" ajkavrpoi" tou` skovtou", to describe the kind of work/workers to be avoided by those in the building of Christ.  Finally, 1 Cor 3.9 states that Christians are not alone in the work of building up Christ’s body, but are in fact fellow-workers, sunergoiv, with God in the building of the Church.

In the epigraphy under consideration one finds frequent reference to the specifics of a contract, e.g., who is responsible for what operations, how large certain stones should be, and etc.  The nominal, τὴν ἐργασίαν refers to these sorts of contract obligations.[9]  Showing the variety of ways any single word can be used, τὴν ἐργασίαν is also used for an entire construction project that has been awarded to various parties—each responsible for a portion of the structure.[10]  Similar to the former use listed above, in Ephesians 4.19 ejrgasivan functions in a more specific fashion, detailing a single facet of a larger condition.  In this case the noun is the object of the preposition eij", stating the purpose for which the unbelievers have given themselves to promiscuity, namely for “working” impurity.

Our investigation of the e[rg* word-group is not limited to nouns though.  The verb ἐξεργάσονται[11] has been used to describe the activity of building all things according to contract.[12]  In Ephesians 4.28 the Apostle Paul uses ejrgazovmeno",[13] to describe the work the thief should now pursue in the building of the body of Christ, i.e. honest employment and sharing—as opposed to the work of stealing and hoarding, so characteristic of his pre-Christian experience.

From this brief analysis of the e[rg* cognates, a recognizable overlap of meaning may be inferred.  Thus, in light of the frequency of the e[rg* word-group in ancient building contracts and the NT texts under consideration, it may in fact be that the Apostle Paul is employing building imagery as a metaphor to teach Christian doctrine, viz., the fact that God is building a structure of people—who themselves have a part in the building. 

Further still, this metaphor does not lack reference in our day, and may help contemporary believers to see the significance of ministry in the body of Christ.  Here we are helped to apply this idea by considering Fee’s comments on 1 Cor 3.10-15,

This text has singular relevance to the contemporary church.  It is neither a challenge to the individual believer to build his or her life well on the foundation of Christ, nor is it grist for theological debate.  Rather, it is one of the most significant passages in the NT that warn—and encourage—those responsible for “building” the church of Christ.  In the final analysis, of course, this includes all believers, but it has particular relevance, following so closely as it does vv. 5-9, to those with teaching/leadership responsibilities.[14]

Poievw and Cognates

As one may expect, building contracts of antiquity detail the work of individuals who were erecting the various facets of a structure.  The verb ποιήσει[15] is used in just this way, describing the efforts of a particular man in accord with the stipulations of the contract.[16]

In the epigraphy,[17] various phases of a construction project were described by ποιήσας.[18]   This same participle[19] is found in Eph 2.14, describing God’s work in building divergent Jews and Gentiles into one new entity, the church.  The apostle Paul advances this same theme with another participle, poiw`n,[20] in Eph 2.15.  There Paul is concerned for his audience to understand God’s work of building peace between Jews and Gentiles through the abolishing of the law of commandments that separated the two ethnicities.  God did this in Christ’s flesh (2.14).  In Ephesians 3.20, the writer yet again uses a cognate of poievw,[21] here as part of a doxology unto God who is able to build this great spiritual structure—which is beyond human comprehension for its diversity (i.e. composed of both Jews and Greeks), and enormity.

Ephesians 4.16 is perhaps the verse most densely saturated with the construction-metaphor imagery applied to the local church community.  It is here that we see an example of Pauline ‘mixed metaphors.’  In this instance, the crasis of construction and anatomical semblance combine to provide a unique picture of individuals constructing a large corporate entity through interpersonal service-contributions.  Once again, many commentators miss Paul’s lively notion here—and thus fall short of realizing the cohesion of the ‘doctrinal’ (chs. 1-3) and ‘practical’ (chs. 4-6) sections of the Epistle.  Peter T. O’Brien comes closest to describing the “living-building” mixed metaphor when he writes,

By means of architectural imagery (cf. 2:21-22), the ultimate goal of Christian growth is now reiterated in the final phrase, ‘for the purpose of building itself in love’.  Clearly the whole body is involved in this process of building, not simply those who are leaders or who have special ministries.[22]

It may be that the building metaphor employed throughout the first several chapters of Ephesians is, toward the end of the Epistle, advanced for instruction of relationships in the home of the ancient world.  Three poievw cognates are used in chapter six to describe slave/master relationships.  Two verbals, poiou`nte" in 6.6, and poihvsh/ in 6.8, characterize the way a believing slave was to ‘build’ the domain of their master, while poiei`te is used in 6.9—perhaps showing the way a Christian master should ‘build’ his slave in the household.

In the theologically compressed eulogy of Ephesians, the apostle Paul uses the plhvr* word-group in the genitive phrase eij" oijkonomivan tou` plhrwvmato" tw`n kairw`n, (Eph 1.10).  The genitive here may be understood as ‘destination,’ in that it modifies eij" oijkonomivan, by stating the progressive work of God in the Christian era.[23]  Much of the remainder of the Epistle is a description of what God is doing in this ‘fullness of time,’ viz., constructing the ‘fullness’ of the body of Christ through both Jews and Gentiles.  As Peter T. O’Brien states,

In connection with Christ’s eschatological relationship to a multitude of entities (including personal beings), the text suggest that God’s ‘summing up’ of these entities in Christ is his act of ‘bringing all things together in (and under Christ, i.e. his unifying of them in some way in Christ’[24] (italics not in original).  

The second and third occurrences of plhvr* in Ephesians occur in 1.23, forming a play on words which may communicate one of the most complex ideas in the Epistle.[25]  In the first instance, to; plhvrwma is a predicate nominative in simple apposition to to; sw`ma, ultimately referring to th`/ ejkklhsiva/ in v. 22.  Here the idea appears to be similar to that in Col 1.19 and 2.9, where Christ is said to be the fullness of the Godhead.  The final phrase of v. 23 explains how this ‘fullness’ is being ‘filled’—through Christ’s own self-centered activity.[26]  The difficulties of interpretation aside, the text emphatically states Christ’s supremacy over the church and the cosmos, as both the direct object of the participle (ta; pavnta), and the adverbial phrase ejn pa`sin separate the definite article from the substantized participle.  This being understood, we can see a connection in the way Paul used plhvr* and how this word group was used in building contracts of the ancient world.  The Epigraphy reveal that τ[ὰ πλη]-ρώματα was employed for a part of the “fullness/structure” which is cut and fitted with respect to the project en toto.[27]

Perhaps Paul’s most emphatic use of the plhvr* word-group occurs in Ephesians 3.14-19—a paragraph saturated with construction terms.[28]  The prayer of this paragraph climaxes with a result clause, i{na plhrwqh`te eij" pa`n to; plhvrwma tou` qeou`.  Here the Apostle’s idea is the culmination of his insight into tw`/ musthrivw/ tou` Cristou` (3.4), namely ei\nai ta; e[qnh sugklhronovma kai; suvsswma kai; summevtoca th`" ejpaggeliva" ejn Cristw`/  jIhsou` dia; tou` eujaggelivou (3.6).  Thus, Paul employs these construction terms to help his audience grasp the grandeur of the fact that both believing Jews and Gentiles are growing together in the love of God.

Finally, as one may conceive, plhvr* can be used to describe the standard of fullness in a constructed object.  This is yet another point of contact for Ephesians and the epigraphy of the ancient world.  In Ephesians 4 Paul has set forth the means by which the united body is to grow into the head, Jesus Christ.  As gifted indivduals (vv. 11-12) function according to their abilities, the entire body/structure builds itself according to the blueprint Christ has set forth.  This standard of united faith and labor is expressed by the final phrases of v. 13: eij" a[ndra tevleion, eij" mevtron hJlikiva" tou` plhrwvmato" tou` Cristou`.  Here, tou` plhrwvmato" is most likely epexegetical, emphasizing that the stature is reaching the standard of fullness as the members of the body coordinate in faithful service.  Accordingly, plhvrwma occurs as the object of the preposition eij" in the epigraphy to denote the standard of fullness in a tower yet under construction.[29]

On the whole then, the plhvr* word-group is employed in the New Testament Epistle to the Ephesians and in building contracts carved in stone and preserved even until today.  In both venues plhvr* is used as key construction terminology.  Thus, an understanding of these points of contact between the ancient world and the text of Scripture may significantly aid the student of Biblical Studies and Theology in an interpretation of Ephesians.  The error of our neglect here would be at least that of degree; we may miss just how naturally these construction terms would have communicated to those living in the first century.

  Oijkodom*

Paul challenged the Corinthian believers to live against the grain of their culture.  This first-century Christian community was embedded in an environment of patron/client relationships and selfish dovxa.  Sadly, these attitudes—which dominated their lifestyle before conversion—were yet evident in the church.  Thus, some of the weaker believers boasted in more prominent members of the congregation.  To remedy their man-centeredness, the apostle exhorted them: oJ kaucwvmeno" ejn kurivw/ kaucavsqw (1.31).  As Paul continues through chapter three, he has yet to leave this theme, stating: w{ste ou[te oJ futeuvwn ejstivn ti ou[te oJ potivzwn ajllÆ oJ aujxavnwn qeov" (3.7).  The apostle goes on to define this growth specifically in v. 9, describing himself and the apostles as God’s fellow-workers, and the Corinthians as qeou` oijkodomhv. 

Throughout the remainder of the paragraph Paul employs building terminology to warn the Corinthian believers (especially leaders of the church) that they take care: (1) to build exclusively on the foundation of Christ and no other, and (2) that the quality of their building be appropriate to the foundation.  This line of warning begins in v.10 and continues through v. 14—a section in which Paul delineates a number of common building materials in the ancient world.[30]  In v. 14 Paul gives the promise of eternal reward for the builder—upon the condition that o} ejpoikodovmhsen remains.

So, in 1 Corinthians 3 Paul uses oijkodom* to describe both the action and the result of God’s work and the work of believers—especially leaders in the local church community.  The construction term is used as a metaphor in the Biblical text, but it was naturally employed in the epigraphy.  In one ancient building contract, οἰκοδομήσει[31] was used several times for a specific aspect of the work that the builder will perform.[32]  Further, the infinitival form, οἰκοδομῆσαι, was used to designate the purpose of the construction contract.[33]

In the later portion of Ephesians 2, Paul describes the sure hope that Gentile Christians have as fellow-heirs with the Jewish believers.  Paul uses the building metaphor to explain his redemption-historical theme, viz., that both groups are being fitted together into a holy temple.  Just as the epigraphy use the nominal τὴν οἰκοδομίαν to describe materials being used for the purpose of construction, [34] so too Paul speaks of Jews and Gentiles as the ‘materials’ being built into God’s oijkodomhv.  

Further in Ephesians (4.12, 16), Paul uses the accusative singular of oijkodomh as the object of the preposition eij", emphasizing the purpose of loving service among believers.  Concerning oijkodomh in 4.12, O’Brien writes,

The key term used in the phrase, ‘for building the body of Christ’, here denotes the activity of building.  The cognate verb appears in the New Testament for the literal building of houses, temples, and other structures, and figuratively for the establishment of individuals or nations… In line with the salvation-historical dimension, Ephesians 4 indicates that the exalted Messiah gives ministries of the word to equip God’s people for work in his service so as to build his body.  This constructing has both an extensive and an intensive dimension to it.  Growth in size is implied in the mention of the gifts of apostles and evangelists (v. 11), while the introduction of the body metaphor implies the notion of development of the church as an organism from within, by means of its own God-give life.[35] 

Yet, this construction metaphor is not vague in usage.  Rather, even the way believers speak to one another should be purposed toward the oijkodomh of the church (4.29).  As Bruce aptly states, “It is not only from lying that Christians should keep their lips free: foul language of any kind is inappropriate…any talk that works to the detriment of the persons addressed or of those who are spoken about.”[36]

Kefalhv

Thus far we have seen a variety of building terms employed in Ephesians.  This building/construction metaphor is further advanced in the use of kefalhv.  The final paragraph of chapter one is the doxological culmination of Paul’s intercession for the Ephesian Christians.  In 1.22 the apostle describes the supreme position of Christ: kai; pavnta uJpevtaxen uJpo; tou;" povda" aujtou` kai; aujto;n e[dwken kefalh;n uJpe;r pavnta th`/ ejkklhsiva/. 

Here, in what may be another Christological interpretation of Psalm 100, God the Father is the active agent who has given Christ to the church as kefalh;n over all.  In this instance kefalh;n accentuates the supremacy of Christ in at least two ways.  First, Christ is the head uJpe;r pavnta.  In the context of the paragraph, pavnta includes all spiritual powers and authorities that would seek to diminish and thwart God’s program in the church.  These ajrch`" kai; ejxousiva" kai; dunavmew" kai; kuriovthto" (v. 21) are in subjection to Christ as the one who is seated at God’s right hand (v. 20), and is the kefalh;n uJpe;r pavnta.  Parallel to its use here in Ephesians, the epigraphy use kefalh; when referring to the top of an erected wall.[37]

Yet, the construction metaphor implied in the use of kefalh;n in Ephesians 1.22 may be propelled by the use of  uJpe;r with the accusative, since this combination is often categorized as spatial.[38]  Thus, when understood in conjunction with the other building terms in Ephesians, kefalh;n may here be understood as communicating more than the conceptual, albeit profound, fact that Christ is “excelling” or “surpassing” the spiritual powers of darkness.[39]  Rather, perhaps this recondite truth was tangible in the minds of the Ephesians, viz., Christ is the head of a building whose apex (strength) reaches beyond the range of ajrch`" kai; ejxousiva" kai; dunavmew" kai; kuriovthto".

Further still, in the final phrase of Ephesians 1.22 Paul states that the Church (th`/ ejkklhsiva)[40] in particular receives Christ as kefalh;n.  Thus, taken with the use of the building terms to; sw`ma and to; plhvrwma in v. 23, the supremacy of Christ is seen in His headship over His own body, the Church of Jews and Gentiles—the fullness God has chosen to fill.

As we have seen, Ephesians 4 is replete with building/construction terminology.  In 4.15 Paul writes that as Christ is hJ kefalhv, the believing community is to grow up into Him in every respect.  Thus, we see again the mixed metaphor of an animated building that supernaturally edifies itself by Christ and under His authority/dominion.[41]  Since this metaphor may be more evident when exegesis is done in connection with the study of epigraphy (and NT backgrounds in general), students of the NT should pursue these studies for the sake of accuracy in theology.